專利的保護范圍不限于權利要求的字面含義,而是涵蓋權利要求技術特征的所有等同范圍。如果法院在專利侵權審判中嚴格拘泥于字面侵權,則會讓權利人成為字面含義的犧牲品。因此,美國法院創設了系列將專利侵權責任擴大到字面意義之外的規則,其中最著名且最具爭議性的當屬等同原則(Doctrine of Equivalent)。等同原則是法官制定的原則,指被控侵權產品或方法中的一個或幾個技術要素雖然與權利要求中的技術要素不一樣,但二者只有非實質性的區別。該原則消除了因過分強調權利要求的字面語言而可能導致的不公平,從而在專利的公平范圍和其公示效應之間取得了更好的平衡,也為公眾提供了創新激勵與不確定性成本之間的平衡。
等同原則的歷史
等同原則最早可以追溯到1853年的Winans v. Denmead案[1]。該案訴爭專利的保護范圍涉及一種運輸煤炭的車,車身的主體具有截頭圓錐體的截面形狀,而被指控侵權的裝置的截面并非圓形,而是八邊形。美國聯邦最高法院(以下簡稱聯邦最高法院)的法官駁回了被告關于“必須是圓形才構成侵權”的論點,指出“專利權人在描述其發明、展示其原理并以最完美的體現其發明并提出權利要求后,從法律角度考慮,被視為保護其發明可被復制的所有形式,除非他表明了放棄其中某種形式的意圖?!?span style="color: rgb(0, 112, 192);">[2]從此誕生了等同的理論。
此后,1950年的里程碑案例Graver Tank v. Linde Air products[3]正式確立了現代的等同原則,該案確立了沿用至今的著名的三元測試法—方式-功能-效果(Function-Way-Result test)。如果待鑒定等同的技術要素以本質上相同的方式完成本質上相同的功能,以獲得本質上相同的效果,則該技術要素構成等同物[4]。
01全要件原則(All-element Rule or Element-by-element Rule)
聯邦最高法院在前面提到的Warner案中確立了全要件原則,指出“必須就每一要件分別判斷等同(element by element),而非就整體發明判斷的整體比對(as a whole),因為每一個要件對于權利范圍的界定皆是重要的”[9]。全要件原則本身并不是一種限制,而更接近于等同原則適用的具體要求。
為了糾正錯誤,聯邦最高法院在2002年著名的Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki[10]案件中對Warner案中建立的禁止反悔的原則予以肯定,并詳細論述了禁止反悔原則與等同理論的關系,因此,禁止反悔原則又被稱為Festo estoppel。
聯邦最高法院在該案中澄清了兩個重大問題:
第一個問題涉及哪些權利要求特征的修改可能會觸發禁止反悔原則。聯邦最高法院再度重申其在warner案中的意見,即,雖然禁止反言并不是在所有申請出現修改的情況下都會出現,但是,在修改是出于“與可專利性相關的實質性原因”(a substantial reason related to patentability)的情況下,禁止反悔原則是適用的。聯邦最高法院進一步確認,“與可專利性相關的實質性原因”包括為滿足專利法的要求而進行的縮小范圍的修改,而Festo案中原告為了滿足專利法第§112條的修改與為了區別于現有技術的修改一樣,同樣適用禁止反悔原則的使用[11]。
捐獻原則是運用得已經非常成熟的法律規則,在美國多個案例中均有解釋,包括:Miller v. Brass Company[14]、 Unique Concepts, Inc. v. Brown[15]、Maxwell v. J. Baker[16]以及著名的Johnson Johnston Assoc v. R.E. Serv案[17]。雖然案件事實各異,但都闡述了一致的法律精神:防止專利權人“兩頭獲利”,即,不允許專利權人在申請時為了獲得授權采用范圍較窄的權利要求,而在之后的侵權訴訟中,又以說明書中披露的其他等同方案為由,試圖通過適用等同原則,擴大專利權的保護范圍。
此后,有法律界人士認為法官應當審理專利權人“省略”相關實施例的主觀意圖,認為因過失導致的缺失保護應另當別論。法官在2002年的里程碑案例Johnson Johnston Assoc v. R.E. Serv案[18]回答了這種業界主張,認為專利權人的主觀意圖,(過失或故意)與特定內容是否公開無關,后者是客觀問題,換言之,捐獻原則的認定無須考慮主觀意圖。
1990年的Wilson Sporting Goods Co. v. David Geoffrey & Associates[19]案(以下簡稱Wilson 案)是現有技術限制闡述最為完整的案例。原告Wilson訴競爭對手DGA以及其分銷商Dunlop侵犯了其專利名稱為高爾夫球的US4560168專利。Wilson是高爾夫球業務的六大競爭對手之一,Dunlop也是高爾夫球行業重要的參與者,Dunlop把Slazenger高爾夫球銷售給DGA,再由DGA進行分銷。一審中,地方法院首先認定Wilson的專利有效,且Dunlop的高爾夫球構成等同侵權。Dunlop和DGA對一審結果不服,向聯邦巡回法院提起上訴。
對于功能性特征,美國專利法在第35 U.S.C.§112(f)[21]規定:專利申請人可以在權利要求中采用結構+功能(means plus function)的方式來表述,但是這種表述被限縮性地解釋為覆蓋說明書記載的相應結構、材料或者動作及其等同方式??梢?,雖然權利要求被允許采用較寬泛的功能性表述,但實際上不管是在專利授權或是侵權判定過程中,均要求限縮至說明書公開的具體實施方式及其等同方式。為避免歧義,此處的等同稱為§112(f)的等同。
其次,兩者的判斷標準不同。Valmont Industries, Inc. v. Reinke Mfg. Co.[22]案中,法院明確指出,在涉及功能性特征的侵權判定中,為使侵權成立,被控侵權的裝置必須使用與說明書中描述的結構、材料或步驟相同或等同的方式來實現權利要求中記載的相同功能,這與等同判斷標準中實現實質相同的功能不同,后者可以不同。
[1] Winans v. Denmead, 56 U.S. 330 (1853) [2] "the patentee, having described his invention, and shown its principles, and claimed it in that form which most perfectly embodies it, is, in contemplation of law, deemed to claim every form in which his invention may be copied, unless he manifests an intention to disclaim some of those forms." [3] Graver Tank v. Linde Air products Co., 339 U.S. 605 (1950) [4] a patentee may invoke this doctrine to proceed against the producer of a device "if it performs substantially the same function in substantially the same way to obtain the same result." [5] An important factor is whether persons reasonably skilled in the art would have known of the interchangeability of an ingredient not contained in the patent with one that was. [6] Warner Jenkinson Co., Inc. vs. Hilton Davis Chemical Co., 117S. Ct. 1040 (1997) [7] noting that equivalency is properly evaluated at the time of infringement, not at the time of patent issuance [8] [A] finding of infringement under the doctrine of equivalents requires proof of insubstantial differences between the claimed and accused products or processes. [9] The way to reconcile the two lines of authority is to apply the doctrine to each of the individual elements of a claim, rather than to the accused product or process as a whole. Doing so will preserve some meaning for each of a claim's elements, all of which are deemed material to defining the invention's scope. [10] Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co., 535 U.S. 722 (2002) [11] Prosecution history estoppel is not limited to amendments intended to narrow the patented invention's subject matter, e. g., to avoid prior art, but may apply to a narrowing amendment made to satisfy any Patent Act requirement, including § 112's requirements concerning the patent application's form [12] The narrowing amendment may demonstrate what the claim is not; but it may still fail to capture precisely what the claim is. There is no reason why a narrowing amendment should be deemed to relinquish equivalents unforeseeable at the time of the amendment and beyond a fair interpretation of what was surrendered. [13] There are some cases, however, where the amendment cannot reasonably be viewed as surrendering a particular equivalent. The equivalent may have been unforeseeable at the time of the application; the rationale underlying the amendment may bear no more than a tangential relation to the equivalent in question; or there may be some other reason suggesting that the patentee could not reasonably be expected to have described the insubstantial substitute in question. In those cases the patentee can overcome the presumption that prosecution history estoppel bars a finding of equivalence. [14] Miller v. Brass Company, 104 U.S. 350 (1881):the claim of a specific device or combination, and an omission to claim other devices or combinations apparent on the face of the patent, are, in law, a dedication to the public of that which is not claimed [15] Unique Concepts, Inc. v. Brown, 939 F.2d 1558, 19 USPQ2d 1500 (Fed. Cir. 1991) [16] Maxwell v. J. Baker, Inc., 86 F.3d 1098 (Fed. Cir. 1996) [17] Johnson Johnston Assoc v. R.E. Serv, 285 F.3d 1046 [18] patentee's subjective intent is irrelevant to determining whether unclaimed subject matter has been disclosed and therefore dedicated to the public [19] Wilson Sporting Goods Co. v. David Geoffrey & Associates, 904 F.2d 677 (Fed. Cir. 1990) [20] A patentee should not be able to obtain, under the doctrine of equivalents, coverage which he could not lawfully have obtained from the PTO by literal claims. The doctrine of equivalents exists to prevent a fraud on a patent ..., not to give the patentee something he could not lawfully have obtained from the PTO had he tried. Prior art limits what an inventor could [21] (f) ELEMENT IN CLAIM FOR A COMBINATION — An element in a claim for a combination may be expressed as a means or step for performing a specified function without the recital of structure, material, or acts in support thereof, and such claim shall be construed to cover the corresponding structure, material, or acts described in the specification and equivalents thereof. [22] for a means-plus-function limitation to read on an accused device, the accused device must employ means identical to or the equivalent of the structures, material, or acts described in the patent specification. The accused device must also perform the identical function as specified in the claims.